Creatine is one of the most studied supplements in sports science — but emerging research is revealing benefits that extend well beyond muscle building. Recent trials are uncovering how creatine may support brain function, bone health, and cardiovascular markers, making it relevant across a much wider population than the gym crowd it has traditionally served. The science is evolving quickly, and the picture is more interesting than most people realise.
This article breaks down the cutting-edge studies transforming understanding of creatine's potential, along with what the evidence shows on safety, optimal dosing, and form.
Table of Contents
The body can make creatine endogenously, but diet — especially red meat and seafood — is also a key source. It plays an important role in energy production in muscles, and that's where most creatine gets used. That's also why the traditional focus has been on muscle growth and athletic performance.
What's new?
Creatine is also found in the brain. Its potential role there has been driving fresh excitement about new applications beyond the gym.
Here's what the research is finding.
The brain requires a substantial amount of energy to function properly. Creatine helps produce this energy quickly, supporting crucial brain processes like memory and thinking. It acts like a backup battery system that can instantly deliver energy when demand spikes.
Research shows that taking creatine supplements can increase the amount of creatine in the brain [1]. Multiple studies have investigated whether boosting brain creatine can improve memory and cognitive performance.
But the research isn't all uniform. Some studies found that creatine helps memory, especially in older adults and vegetarians. Other studies did not see much effect [2].
Here's where things get particularly interesting. There's good evidence showing that certain factors, such as lack of sleep or aging, can decrease brain creatine levels [3]. The different results between studies might be due to factors like varying dosages and durations of treatment. But it's also possible that the mixed results arise because some people have lower levels of creatine in their brains than others. In other words, supplementation appears to increase creatine levels in the brain primarily when levels are already low.
It's like filling a gas tank. If the tank is already nearly full, adding fuel won't make much difference in how far the car can travel. Similarly, creatine may only noticeably boost cognitive performance when the brain's natural reserves are depleted to begin with.
To cut through these conflicting results, scientists conducted a large review of all available studies — a meta-analysis — to determine whether creatine genuinely helps with memory. Ten studies were included in the systematic review, using different tools to evaluate memory. The main analysis showed that creatine supplementation improved memory performance compared to a placebo, particularly in older adults [4]. This finding has particular relevance for an aging population, where maintaining cognitive function is a central goal.
A more recent meta-analysis, including 16 trials, found once again that creatine supplementation had a significant positive impact on memory. It also improved attention time and sped up processing speed [5]. This analysis uncovered additional ways creatine appears to help brain function — extending the picture beyond simple memory to broader cognitive performance metrics.
It also had one other intriguing finding. Subgroup analysis showed creatine supplementation was particularly beneficial for females [6]. This is notable because creatine is often perceived as a supplement primarily for men or for athletes. The research clearly indicates it is equally relevant for women across a range of ages and activity levels — a point worth emphasising given how often this population is overlooked in creatine research and marketing alike.
One additional study provides a suggestive link between creatine and brain health. Published in January, it investigated combining creatine supplementation with cognitive behavioral therapy to treat depression. The group taking creatine improved substantially more than the placebo group [7]. While this is a single study and replication is needed, the finding adds another dimension to creatine's potential role in brain function beyond memory and processing speed.
There is growing evidence that disruptions in the brain's processes for producing, storing, and using energy are connected to depression [8]. Creatine plays a central role in that energy metabolism, and supplementation can increase creatine availability in the brain — giving this depression study additional mechanistic plausibility. Energy metabolism in neurons is increasingly viewed as a target for mental health research, and creatine's well-understood role in that system makes it a logical candidate for further investigation.
Brain health is closely connected to healthy aging. But there are two additional areas, also connected to aging, where the evidence for creatine's potential is growing.
One is osteosarcopenia. This is a condition found in older adults where both bone and muscle health are declining simultaneously. It leads to increasing frailty and can result in fractures. A recent analysis described it as an "emerging geriatric giant, which poses a serious global health burden" [9]. The scale of this condition — affecting millions globally as populations age — underscores the urgency of finding accessible, safe interventions.
With an aging population, finding effective and practical interventions is a high priority. A review article published recently proposes creatine supplementation as a promising intervention for osteosarcopenia [10]. The reasoning is grounded in existing evidence: there are documented benefits of creatine in older adults for both muscle mass and bone health when paired with resistance training [11]. The combination of creatine with structured exercise appears to address both the muscle and the bone component of this dual-deficit condition.
And here's one further area where creatine supplementation may contribute to healthy aging — with implications worth watching as more data emerge. A small pilot study published at the end of 2024 examined creatine's impact on blood vessel health in older adults. After four weeks, creatine significantly improved several aspects of blood flow. It also reduced fasting glucose levels and triglycerides [12].
These factors are all associated with cardiovascular health and metabolic function — key contributors to long-term wellbeing. This early evidence that creatine can have a positive impact here, too, is worth noting.
All of the research reviewed here is in the early stages. The results so far are encouraging, and the breadth of potential applications — brain function, bone health, cardiovascular markers — makes creatine one of the more scientifically interesting supplements currently under investigation. But the authors of all these studies call for further randomised controlled trials to better understand the effects, the mechanisms, and the populations most likely to benefit from creatine supplementation in these areas.
The old in a new light
The traditional use of creatine supplements — for muscle and performance gains — also connects to aging in an important way.
Here's why:
A growing body of evidence shows that as muscle strength declines, total mortality rates increase [13]. On average, human muscle mass declines by about 1% per year from the age of 40 [14].
Therefore, to slow muscle loss, the goal is to maximize muscle strength earlier in life, maintain that muscle in middle age, and minimise loss with advancing age.
This is where the established benefits of creatine supplementation are directly relevant. One recent analysis of multiple studies concluded creatine helps increase muscle strength, muscle mass, and athletic performance when combined with exercise [16]. The evidence reviewed, however, showed a clear benefit primarily in younger populations [17].
Even if creatine didn't improve muscle mass for older adults, it would still make a positive contribution by helping people build more muscle when they're younger — providing a larger reserve to draw down as age-related decline sets in. It's like fortifying the foundation of a home so it can better withstand a storm that arrives years down the road.
But is there evidence that creatine can also help with muscle maintenance and growth in older populations?
This has been an area of intensive study. One meta-analysis pooled the results of 22 trials. The authors found a clear result: creatine supplementation increases lean mass and both upper and lower body strength when used with resistance training in older adults [18].
An international team of experts addressed this question directly in a comprehensive review. Their conclusion: creatine's ability to increase muscle with exercise has been confirmed in older populations as well [19].
The evidence supports this conclusion: creatine, combined with resistance training, appears to build and maintain muscle throughout life. This matters not just for performance, but for the broader picture of healthy aging — muscle strength is increasingly recognised as one of the strongest predictors of long-term health outcomes, and creatine is one of the few supplements with robust, replicated evidence for improving it.
There are some common misconceptions about creatine's side effect profile. One frequent objection is that the muscle mass gains with creatine are simply due to water retention, not real muscle.
There is a grain of truth here. Studies have found that creatine supplementation can lead to increased water retention in some people when they first start taking it [20]. Crucially, though, a number of studies have shown there is no meaningful water retention over the longer term [21]. The trials reviewed above clearly show that creatine used with exercise promotes real muscle gain, which accounts for the lean mass increases observed.
People also sometimes worry about hair loss.
This concern stems from a 2009 study of rugby players, where creatine supplements appeared to increase levels of a hormone called DHT — a hormone that contributes to hair loss [22]. But it's important to note that it was just DHT levels, not actual hair loss. No study has ever shown that creatine accelerates hair loss.
There was also a statistical issue in that 2009 study. There was a small increase in DHT levels in the creatine group, but in the placebo group there was a small decrease. The combination of these two movements produced the statistically significant result [23].
Those results have never been replicated. Five other studies have examined hormone levels, including DHT, and found no increases. In summary, current evidence does not indicate that creatine supplementation increases total testosterone, free testosterone, DHT, or causes hair loss [24].
What's more likely: people who start creatine often begin resistance training at the same time. Testosterone rises with exercise, and testosterone is converted to DHT [25]. Creatine may be getting blamed for something that's actually driven by the training itself.
Another safety concern involves uric acid. Creatine was previously thought to increase uric acid levels — high uric acid can cause painful gout attacks in the joints. The evidence indicates creatine appears to do the opposite: it decreases uric acid [26].
Overall, creatine has a strong safety profile. A position statement from the International Society of Sports Nutrition summarised the weight of the evidence: short and long-term supplementation with creatine is safe and well-tolerated in healthy individuals across a range of patient populations [27]. This is one of the strongest safety endorsements available for any supplement — the ISSN position statement is based on a comprehensive review of the literature and is regularly updated as new data emerge.
How to use
For those looking to take creatine, what form and dose does the evidence support?
On form: almost all studies of creatine supplementation use creatine monohydrate. The reason is straightforward — it is the most cost-effective and best-studied form, with well-established efficacy and strong bioavailability [19]. Despite the marketing of newer forms such as creatine ethyl ester or buffered creatine, none has demonstrated a consistent advantage over monohydrate in controlled trials. The evidence base for monohydrate is simply broader and more mature.
On dose: there used to be an idea that people starting creatine should use a loading dose of around 20 grams a day for several weeks to rapidly saturate muscles and accelerate results. This loading protocol does work — but it comes with trade-offs.
Higher doses increase the chance of gastrointestinal upset. The evidence supports a simpler, more tolerable approach: 5 g per day is the dose used in most trials and supported by the ISSN position statement. For most people, this amount achieves full muscle saturation — just over a longer time horizon (approximately four weeks rather than one) and with considerably less risk of digestive discomfort [19].
From the MicroVitamin range
MicroVitamin+ Powder includes 5 g of creatine monohydrate per serving — the evidence-backed daily dose — combined with collagen, taurine, a fibre blend, and a full multivitamin. MicroVitamin+ Powder.
One important safety note: creatine is converted into creatinine in the body. Testing blood creatinine is a standard marker of kidney function. When someone starts taking creatine, blood creatinine levels rise — which can make kidney function appear worse than it actually is. This has historically caused confusion, and led to early (now outdated) concerns that creatine was harmful to kidneys.
Think of the kidneys like a traffic officer managing flow on a road. Creatinine is like cars on that road. Creatine supplementation adds more cars to the road, making it look like the officer isn't keeping up — even though traffic is actually moving fine. The creatinine rise is an artefact of the supplement, not a sign of kidney damage. Healthcare providers who see an elevated creatinine in a patient taking creatine should factor this in before drawing any conclusions about kidney function.
For those with normal kidney function, the evidence suggests creatine is not a concern [28]. However, for individuals with significant pre-existing kidney disease, reduced doses or avoidance may be appropriate — this is best discussed with a healthcare provider familiar with the individual's kidney health.
References
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8912287/
2. https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nutrit/nuac064/6671817
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8912287/
4. https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nutrit/nuac064/6671817
5. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11275561/
6. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11275561/
7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39488067/
8. https://www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/9/9/406
9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7296259/
10. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40014064/
11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40014064/
12. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39796490/
13. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772850/
14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772850/
15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6322506/
16. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8949037/
17. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8949037/
19. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w
20. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23851411/
21. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w
22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19741313/
23. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w
24. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w
25. https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/11536910-000000000-00000
26. https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-13-115
27. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z
28. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z
